The field of animal rehabilitation is fairly new and this means, unfortunately, there isn’t a lot of published research. Lots of our techniques treating animals have traditionally been borrowed from the best practices in human physiotherapy, chiropractic, osteopathy, exercise science or other modalities.
This approach is the obvious place to start, but animals and humans aren’t the same, so things need to be tweaked a little bit to suit the animal
Below is an evolving list of the best research we have to support what we do.
| Title | Study Population & Intervention | Results | Relevance | Tags/Topics |
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| Crook, T., McGowan, C., & Pead, M. (2007). Effect of passive stretching on the range of motion of osteoarthritic joints in 10 labrador retrievers. Veterinary record, 160(16), 545-547. | 10 healthy Labrador retrievers, over 1.5 years old, confirmed osteoarthritis of elbow, stifle, or carpus with limited range of motion 21 day study – 10 passive stretches for a hold of 10 seconds twice daily. ROM measured before and after the study |
There was a significant increase in the range of motion of the joints in all the dogs after the 21-day stretching programme (P<0.0005). There was a mean angular increase in joint flexion of 14.6° (95%CI 10.7 to 18.5°). The percentage increase in the ROM ranged from 7-23% | Passive ROM exercises improved joint ROM in thoracic limb OA | Exercise, Stretching, OA, Labrador, Canine |
| Alves, J. C., Santos, A., Jorge, P., & Carreira, L. M. (2022). A randomized double-blinded controlled trial on the effects of photobiomodulation therapy in dogs with osteoarthritis. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 83(8). | RCT of 40 OA joints – mean age of 8.3 ± 1.9 years and body weight of 65.7 ± 12.1lb. Osteoarthritis was classified as moderate (n = 26) and severe (14) Control group (20) – 3 weeks of meloxicam; Intervention group (20) – Photobiomodulation therapy Class IV therapeutic laser over 3 weeks Measured Joint ROM, thigh girth, the Canine Brief Pain Inventory, Hudson Visual Analogue Scale, Liverpool Osteoarthritis in Dogs, and Canine Orthopedic Index – before treatment, +8, +15, +30, +60, and +90 days after initial treatment |
PBMT improved function and gait, pain severity and intensity scores at +8, +15, and +30 days, as well as Canine orthopaedic index and Liverpool osteoarthritis in dogs at +30 days (P<0.04). Joint ROM improved from +15 – 90 days post treatment, and Kaplan-Meier estimators showed that PBMT produced longer periods with better results | PBMT reduced pain levels and improved clinical findings in dogs with osteoarthritis | Laser, OA, Canine |
| Looney, A. L., Huntingford, J. L., Blaeser, L. L., & Mann, S. (2018). A randomized blind placebo-controlled trial investigating the effects of photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) on canine elbow osteoarthritis. The Canadian Veterinary Journal, 59(9), 959. | 20 dogs with naturally occurring elbow osteoarthritis – randomly assigned to receive either PBMT (11) 10 to 20 J/cm2 or a placebo treatment (sham light (9)) treatment 0 J/cm2, to both elbows for 6 weeks Lameness score, pain score, and NSAID dose were recorded by blinded study personnel before and 7 to 10 days after last treatment |
Reduction in NSAID dose occurred in 9/11 dogs in the PBMT group, and in 0/9 of group S dogs (P = 0.0003). There was greater improvement in lameness score, and reduction of pain score in 9/11 dogs (P<0.05) | Regularly scheduled PBMT at 10 to 20 J/cm2 per joint for 6 weeks was successful in improving lameness and pain scores, and in lowering NSAID requirement in canine elbow osteoarthritis patients | Laser, OA, Elbows, Canine |
| Haussler, K. K., Hesbach, A. L., Romano, L., Goff, L., & Bergh, A. (2021). A systematic review of musculoskeletal mobilization and manipulation techniques used in veterinary medicine. Animals, 11(10), 2787 | Fourteen articles were included in this systematic review of which 13 were equine and one was a canine study – Seven of these were cohort studies and seven were randomized controlled clinical trials. The canine study involved carpal immobilization remobilization and all equine studies focused on the effects of passive mobilization (n = 5) or manipulation (n = 8) of the axial skeleton |
Study quality was low (n = 4), moderate (n = 7), and high (n = 3) and included a wide array of outcome parameters with varying levels of efficacy and duration of therapeutic effects, which prevented further meta-analysis. | Inconclusive evidence for mobilisation techniques – Optimal technique indications and dosages need to be determined to improve the standardization of these treatment options | Manual therapy, Mobilisation, Canine, Equine |
| Draper, W.E., Schubert, T.A., Clemmons, R.M. and Miles, S.A. (2012) ‘Low-level laser therapy reduces time to ambulation in dogs after hemilaminectomy: a preliminary study’, (Links to an external site.) Journal of Small Animal Practice, 53(8), pp. 465-469. | Prospective study of 36 dogs with acute paraparesis/ paraplegia due to acute intervertebral disk herniation (Frankel score 0-3). Dogs were assigned to the control group (1) or the laser treatment group (2) based on alternating order of presentation. All dogs underwent surgery for their herniated disk. Dogs in group 2 were treated postoperatively with low-level laser therapy (25 W/cm2) daily for five days, or until they achieved a modified Frankel score of 4. |
The time to achieve a modified Frankel score of 4 was significantly lower (P=0.0016) in the low-level laser therapy group (median 3.5 days) than the control group (median 14 days). | Low-level laser therapy in combination with surgery decreases the time to ambulation in dogs with T3-L3 myelopathy secondary to intervertebral disk herniation | Laser, IVDD, Paraparesis, Surgery, Canine |
| Dachshunds underwent thoraco-lumbar hemilaminectomies for IVDD. 9 dogs were randomly assigned to either receive 8 J/cm2 laser therapy once a day for 7 days or the non-laser treated control group. Incision healing was scored based on the scar scale from 0 to 5, with zero being a fresh incision and five being completely healed with scar contraction and hair growth | All scar scores significantly improved with increasing time from surgery (<0.001) with laser therapy by day seven and continued to be significantly increased on day 21 compared to control dogs | Daily application of laser therapy at 8J/cm2 hastened wound healing in Dachshunds that received thoracolumbar hemilaminectomies for IVDD. It also improved the cosmetic appearance | Laser, IVDD, Dachshund, Thoracolumbar, Hemilaminectomy, Canine |
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| Preston, T. and Wills, A.P. (2018) ‘A single hydrotherapy session increases range of motion and stride length in Labrador retrievers diagnosed with elbow dysplasia,’ The Veterinary Journal, 234, pp. 105-110. | Kinematic analysis (recorded walking at their preferred speed on a treadmill before and 10 min after a single hydrotherapy session) assessing the effect of a customised hydrotherapy session on the range of motion, stride length and stride frequency of healthy Labrador retrievers (n = 6) and Labrador retrievers diagnosed with bilateral elbow dysplasia (n = 6) | Hydrotherapy increased the range of motion of the forelimbs of both groups (P < 0.05); dogs with elbow dysplasia demonstrated a greater improvement in range of motion than healthy dogs (P < 0.05). Hydrotherapy improved stride length and frequency of all dogs, but differences were not seen between the two groups | Canine hydrotherapy is supported as a therapeutic tool for the rehabilitation and treatment of elbow dysplasia. Hydrotherapy might improve the gait and movement of healthy dogs | Hydrotherapy, Elbow Dysplasia, Canine |
| Greene, L. M., Marcellin-Little, D. J., & Lascelles, B. D. X. (2013). Associations among exercise duration, lameness severity, and hip joint range of motion in Labrador Retrievers with hip dysplasia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 242(11), 1528-1533 Full Text |
Owners completed a questionnaire regarding their dogs’ daily exercise duration and type (ie, low impact vs high impact) and lifestyle. Range of motion of affected hip joints was measured with a transparent plastic goniometer. The presence of subluxation or luxation of hip joints as a consequence of hip dysplasia and the size of the largest osteophytes or enthesophytes of hip joints on ventrodorsal radiographic images of the pelvis were recorded | Exercise was associated with a decrease in the severity of lameness in dogs with hip dysplasia. The strength of this inverse relationship increased with longer exercise duration. Lameness was more severe in dogs with hip joint luxation than in dogs without luxation. Hip joint extension was 1° lower for each year of age, and osteophyte or enthesophyte size was 1 mm larger with each 3-year increase in age. | Longer daily exercise duration was associated with lower lameness scores in dogs with hip dysplasia. Dogs with hip joint luxation secondary to hip dysplasia had higher lameness scores than did dogs without hip joint luxation | Exercise, Hip dysplasia, Luxation, Canine |
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Peer reviewed article highlighting the importance of multimodal approach to rehabilitation of HD. The goals of rehabilitation at various stages of canine hip dysplasia vary; initially, clinical signs and discomfort are thought to be due to underlying laxity. Laxity results in lateralization of the femoral head during the swing phase of the gait with a “catastrophic reduction” of the femoral head into the acetabulum during foot strike. | Conservative management is centered around maintaining pain control and comfort while improving hip range of motion in extension and muscle mass. Surgical therapy focuses on improving femoral head coverage and reducing the development of osteoarthritis or removing the source of discomfort. |
Each aspect of rehabilitation such as manual, therapeutic, and physical modalities follows a multimodal patient-centered approach | Rehab, Hip Dysplasia, Canine, Surgery |
| Peer reviewed article – The etiology and location of neurologic injury or disease have a significant impact on the design of the rehabilitation program as well as patient prognosis. Rehabilitation patients should be clinically stable with all immediate critical care and surgical concerns addressed before starting a physiotherapy program. A variety of modalities are available to the rehabilitation therapist to aid in pain management and support tissue healing | The exercise therapy component of the physiotherapy program assists in restoring core strength and balance to facilitate transitional activities (sitting up, standing from sitting, turns, etc). Client education is a critical part of the rehabilitation of neurologic patients; clients often manage urination and assisted locomotion at home for extended periods of time. |
Rehabilitation shouldn’t just include physical exercise – client education is just as important. | Rehab, Neuro conditioning, Physiotherapy, Exercise, Client education, Canine |
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| Baltzer, W. I., Smith-Ostrin, S., Warnock, J. J., & Ruaux, C. G. (2018). Evaluation of the clinical effects of diet and physical rehabilitation in dogs following tibial plateau levelling osteotomy. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 252(6), 686-700. | Peak vertical force and vertical impulse were greater after surgery for dogs in the TF groups than in the CF groups; peak vertical force was greater after surgery in dogs that underwent rehabilitation than in those that did not. Owner scores indicated lower frequencies of lameness and signs of pain during some activities for the TF group, compared with other groups, and for the TF-R and CF-R groups, compared with the CF group. Sedentary time decreased and time spent in light-to-moderate or vigorous activity increased in all groups over time |
Rehabilitation was significantly associated with greater time spent in light-to-moderate activity, regardless of diet. Feeding a dry omega-3 fatty acid and protein– enriched dog food and providing physical rehabilitation during the first 6 months after TPLO were associated with improvements in kinematic gait analysis, lameness, pain, and activity. |
Rehab & diet help CCL recovery after surgery. | Rehab, Diet, CCL, Canine |
| Systematic review of 19 studies evaluating postoperative CCLD rehabilitation interventions |
16 studies yielded positive results. Therapeutic exercise had the most studies with positive results but all had high RoB. Cold compression therapy had 3 supporting studies (2 Level II, low RoB). Extracorporeal shockwave yielded 2 positive Level II studies (low-moderate and high-moderate RoB) and photobiomodulation had 1 positive study (Level II, low RoB) with objective outcomes. There was 1 supporting study on electrical stimulation and there was none on low-intensity pulsed ultrasound. | Exercise & adjunctive therapies can improve recovery following CCL surgery. | CCL, Rehab, Exercise, Canine |
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Rehabilitation therapies are classified into manual therapy (classified into Massage, Joint mobilization exercises and Acupuncture), physical therapy (thermal agents, prosthetics, orthotics, aquatic therapy, electrical stimulation and therapeutic exercises) and therapy with emerging modalities (laser therapy, pulsed magnetic field therapy and extracorporeal shock wave therapy). Assessments: pain, vital signs, body condition and composition, range of motion, muscle strength and gait | Rehabilitation is under-utilized in veterinary sciences. If used in conjunction with standard medicinal and surgical treatment, rehabilitation can be very useful, as they increase the rate of recovery. | Rehab, Manual Therapy, Physical Therapy, Canine |
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Cartilage, muscle, tendons, ligaments, and bone undergo atrophy with decreased limb use. Appropriate rehabilitation of musculoskeletal conditions must incorporate this knowledge to safely remobilize and strengthen these tissues. Outcome assessment should be objective, easy to apply, inexpensive, noninvasive, and, most important, able to discriminate the effectiveness of treatment. | Therapeutic and aquatic exercises, heat, cold, therapeutic ultrasound, electrical stimulation, therapeutic laser, extracorporeal shock wave, and pulsed electromagnetic fields have all been used in veterinary rehabilitation and have benefit. |
Research indicates that rehabilitation is useful for the treatment of various orthopedic and neurologic conditions. | Rehab, Hydrotherapy, Exercise, Laser, Adjunctive Therapies, Orthopaedic, Neurologic, Canine |
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Article highlighting guidelines for benefits and timelines for rehabilitation and an examination of the pathophysiology of canine cranial cruciate ligament injury, for both acute and chronic presentations, describing the stages and modes of repair, and the use of hydrotherapy as a rehabilitation tool | Study favours of the use of hydrotherapy as a beneficial, enjoyable and cost-effective rehabilitation tool, and as an excellent vehicle during the transition between the weak, post-operative and the fully rehabilitated state | Hydrotherapy is beneficial, cost effective & a great way of transitioning through different stages of recovery. | Rehab, Cruciate, Canine |
| WI Baltzer (2020) Rehabilitation of companion animals following orthopaedic surgery, New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 68:3, 157-167, DOI: 10.1080/00480169.2020.1722271 | Cryotherapy and passive range of motion exercises have been shown to improve outcomes following musculoskeletal procedures and may help restore function as well as reduce pain and facilitate healing. Therapeutic modalities such as neuromuscular electrical stimulation, photobiomodulation (laser therapy), therapeutic ultrasound and extracorporeal shock wave therapy have been reported to reduce pain and inflammation, enhance healing and reduce recovery time in the early and late stages following orthopaedic surgery |
During the first 72 hours, rehabilitation should focus on the reduction of inflammation and pain, maintaining joint nutrition and range of motion, and stimulating vascularisation and healing; and may include cryotherapy, passive range of motion exercises, massage and therapeutic exercises. Following the initial recovery period, the goals of rehabilitation also include restoring strength, balance and normal gait patterns, as well as recovery of function. During this period the focus of therapy may shift toward therapeutic exercises, aquatic therapy and increasing activity in the animal. |
Surgery alone may not return the animal to its previous physical activity or work-related tasks, whether due to concurrent soft tissue trauma, arthrogenic muscle inhibition or osteoarthritis. Rehabilitation therapies following surgery can restore function as well as strength, coordination and balance | Rehab, Exercise, Canine |
